Petrographical and chemical characteristics of cleaned oltu-stone waste for their potential use (as a semi-precious stone)
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.22581/muet1982.0272Keywords:
Oltu-stone, Liptinite coal, Dense medium separation, Waste valorization, Resinite, Semi-Precious StoneAbstract
Oltu-stone, a semi-precious stone found in the Oltu district of Erzurum, Turkey, is frequently used in the making of decorative ornaments. Approximately 90-95% of the Oltu-stone mined, consisting of substandard Oltu-stone because of mineral impurities and small fragment sizes, is considered Oltu-stone waste (OW). This waste is either discarded or burned, resulting in economic losses. The utilization of Oltu-stone waste (OW) as an alternative to standard Oltu-stone (SO) could reduce such losses. In order to see if Oltu-stone waste can be used as an alternative to standard Oltu-stone, it must first be cleaned of its inorganic impurities. After that, the cleaned Oltu-stone properties should be determined to compare their characteristics with standard Oltu-stone. In this study, the petrographic and chemical characteristics of cleaned Oltu-stone obtained by dense medium separation (float-sink method) were determined. The results indicated that the cleaned Oltu-stone was liptinite-rich coal with a small amount of huminite content. Also, it shows contorted suberinite cellular structure and has varying resinite content. Due to high liptinite content, cleaned Oltu-stone has a high volatile matter, i.e., 63-65%. The inorganic impurities in the Oltu-stone wastes were mainly quartz, calcite, pyrite, and clay mineral. After cleaning, most inorganics were separated, although pyrite and silicate minerals remained in trace amounts within the cellular structure. The FTIR results show the predominance of aliphatic hydrocarbons, low aromaticity, and low apparent maturity. It was determined that the cleaned Oltu-stone wastes have similar characteristics to the standard Oltu-stone and can be utilized for further processing as an alternative source.
Downloads
References
E. Alparslan, “Oltu gemstone, gold, and silver by using were produced examining of samples cuff-link and tie pin.,” J. World Turks, vol. 2, pp. 179-189 (in Turkish with English abstract), 2010.
E. Kalkan, Ö. Bilici, and H. Kolaylı, “Evaluation of Turkish black amber : A case study of Oltu (Erzurum), NE Turkey,” International Journal of Physical Sciences, vol. 7, no. 15, pp. 2387–2397, 2012, https://doi: 10.5897/IJPS12.092.
M. Y. Ethem, Precious Stones and semi-precious Stones from A to Z., 2nd ed. Ankara (in Turkish): Mars Production, 1990.
T. Parlak, “Oltu Stone and Jewelry Art in the Erzurum.,” 2001.
F. J. Hunter, J. G. McDonnel, A. M. Pollard, C. R. Morris, and C. C. Rowlands, “The scientific identification of Archaeological Jet-like artefacts,” Archaeometry, vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 69–89, Feb. 1993, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4754.1993.tb01024.x.
A. H. V Smith, “Coal microscopy in the service of archaeology,” Int J Coal Geol, vol. 62, no. 1, pp. 49–59, 2005, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2004.01.007.
M. Hatipoğlu, D. Ajò, Y. Kibici, and D. Passeri, “Natural carbon black (Oltu-stone) from Turkey: a micro-Raman study,” Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie - Abhandlungen, vol. 189, no. 1, pp. 97–101, 2012, https://doi: 10.1127/0077-7757/2012/0211.
A. I. Karayigit, “Origin and properties of Oltu gemstone coal,” Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization and Environmental Effects, vol. 29, no. 14, pp. 1279–1284, 2007, https://doi: 10.1080/00908310500434549.
E. Çiftçi, H. Selim, and H. Sendir, “Authentic Semi-precious and Precious Gemstones of Turkey: Special Emphasis on the Ones Preferred for Prayer Beads BT,” in 14th International Congress for Applied Mineralogy (ICAM2019), S. Glagolev, Ed., Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2019, pp. 183–188. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22974-0_42.
V. Çil, “Comparison of geological, mineralogical, gemological and technological properties of oltu stone and russian stone (georgian stone),” Ph.D. Thesis, Çukurova üniversitesi, Adana (in Turkish), 2013.
S. Toprak, “Petrographical properties of a semi-precious coaly stone, Oltu stone, from eastern Turkey,” Int J Coal Geol, vol. 120, pp. 95–101, 2013, https://doi: 10.1016/j.coal.2013.10.004.
D. White, “Role of water conditions in the formation and differentiation of common (banded) coals,” Economic Geology, vol. 28, no. 6, pp. 556–570, 1933, https://doi: 10.2113/gsecongeo.28.6.556.
E. C. Sutcu and S. Toprak, “Petrographical, chemical and FT-IR properties of a suberinitic coal from Aydin–Germencik area, Western Turkey,” Int J Coal Geol, vol. 116–117, pp. 36–45, 2013, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2013.06.005.
G. Göymen, “About Oltu stone.,” in Earth and Human, vol. 1, Ankara: Turkish Geological Institute, 1976, pp. 46-47 (in Turkish).
T. Ozen, O. Bilgin, and M. Caglar, “Chemical and mineralogical characterizations of the Oltustone (Turkish Black amber),” in 13th International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference, SGEM, Albena, Bulgaria, 2013, pp. 559–565. https://doi: 10.5593/sgem2013/ba1.v2/s04.004.
R. Kara-Gülbay, S. Korkmaz, G. Yaylalı-Abanuz, and M. S. Erdoğan, “Organic Geochemistry and Depositional Environment of the Oltu Gemstone (Coal) in the Erzurum Area, NE Anatolia, Turkey,” Energy & Fuels, vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 1451–1463, Feb. 2018, https://doi: 10.1021/acs.energyfuels.7b03486.
Y. Parlak, “Oltustone and a rosary master in Oltu,” Ulakbilge Journal of social sciences, vol. 6, no. 21, pp. 179–191, Feb. 2018, https://doi: 10.7816/ulakbilge-06-21-04 (in Turkish).
M. R. Bawani, “DETERMINATION OF AGGLOMERATION CHARACTERISTICS OF OLTU-STONE (JET STONE) WASTES,” Thesis, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, 2021.
M. R. Bawani, A. I. Arol, G. Tozsin, and A. Torun, “Conversion of cleaned Oltu-stone wastes (a semi-precious stone) into a valuable product using binderless agglomeration,” Physicochemical Problems of Mineral Processing, Jul. 2023, https://doi: 10.37190/ppmp/169730.
A. S. Vikhareva, A. G. Melnikov, and O. M. Utyev, “Technology for melting amber chips to produce a solid block,” IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng, vol. 124, no. 1, 2016, https://doi: 10.1088/1757-899X/124/1/012147.
M. R. Bawani, A. İ. Arol, G. Tozsin, B. Akbulak, and A. Torun, Washability and thermal properties of Oltutaşı wastes, no. October 2019. Antalya, Turkey: Turkish Mining Development Foundation, 2019.
M. Mastalerz, J. C. Hower, and D. N. Taulbee, “Variations in chemistry of macerals as reflected by micro-scale analysis of a Spanish coal,” Geologica Acta, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 483–493, 2013, https://doi: 10.1344/105.000002054.
Y. Yan et al., “Characterization of coal density fractions separated from Victorian brown coal by reflux classification,” Fuel, vol. 292, no. October 2020, p. 120385, 2021, https://doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2021.120385.
I. Sýkorová, W. Pickel, K. Christanis, M. Wolf, G. H. Taylor, and D. Flores, “Classification of huminite—ICCP System 1994,” Int J Coal Geol, vol. 62, no. 1–2, pp. 85–106, Apr. 2005, https://doi: 10.1016/j.coal.2004.06.006.
K. M. Czajka, “Proximate analysis of coal by micro-TG method,” J Anal Appl Pyrolysis, vol. 133, no. February, pp. 82–90, 2018, https://doi: 10.1016/j.jaap.2018.04.017.
X. Liao et al., “Experimental Study on the Wettability of Coal with Different Metamorphism Treated by Surfactants for Coal Dust Control,” ACS Omega, vol. 6, no. 34, pp. 21925–21938, Aug. 2021, https://doi: 10.1021/acsomega.1c02205.
Y. Yan, Y. Qi, M. Marshall, W. R. Jackson, and A. L. Chaffee, “Separation and analysis of maceral concentrates from Victorian brown coal,” Fuel, vol. 242, no. September 2018, pp. 232–242, 2019, https://doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2019.01.025.
S. Toprak, “Petrographical properties of a semi-precious coaly stone, Oltu stone, from eastern Turkey,” Int J Coal Geol, vol. 120, pp. 95–101, 2013, https://doi: 10.1016/j.coal.2013.10.004.
F. E. Huggins, “Overview of analytical methods for inorganic constituents in coal,” Int J Coal Geol, vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 169–214, 2002, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-5162(02)00118-0.
W. Pickel et al., “Classification of liptinite – ICCP System 1994,” Int J Coal Geol, vol. 169, pp. 40–61, 2017, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2016.11.004.
G. H. Taylor, M. Teichmüller, A. Davis, C. F. K. Diessel, R. Littke, and P. Robert, Organic Petrology. Stuttgart, Germany: Schweizerbart Science Publishers, 1998.
B. Ratanasthien, W. Kandharosa, S. Chompusri, and S. Chartprasert, “Liptinite in coal and oil source rocks in northern Thailand,” J Asian Earth Sci, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 301–306, 1999, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0743-9547(98)00067-1.
S. C. Teerman, J. C. Crelling, and G. B. Glass, “Fluorescence spectral analysis of resinite macerals from coals of the Hanna Formation, Wyoming, U.S.A.,” Int J Coal Geol, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 315–334, 1987.
I. Suárez-Ruiz, A. Jiménez, M. J. Iglesias, F. Laggoun-Defarge, and J. G. Prado, “Influence of Resinite on Huminite Properties,” Energy and Fuels, vol. 8, no. 6, pp. 1417–1424, 1994, https://doi: 10.1021/ef00048a033.
B. A. Stankiewicz, M. A. Kruge, and M. Mastalerz, “A geochemical study of macerals from a Miocene lignite and an Eocene bituminous coal, Indonesia,” Org Geochem, vol. 24, no. 5, pp. 531–545, 1996, https://doi.org/10.1016/0146-6380(96)00038-1.
T. Chen et al., “Effect of density on physicochemical and thermal conversion characteristic of Naomaohu coal,” Fuel, vol. 284, no. April 2020, p. 119045, 2021, https://doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2020.119045.
S. J. Mangena and V. M. du Cann, “Binderless briquetting of some selected South African prime coking, blend coking and weathered bituminous coals and the effect of coal properties on binderless briquetting,” Int J Coal Geol, vol. 71, no. 2, pp. 303–312, 2007, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2006.11.001.
T. O. Olugbade and O. T. Ojo, “Binderless briquetting technology for lignite briquettes: a review,” Energy Ecol Environ, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 69–79, 2021, https://doi: 10.1007/s40974-020-00165-3.
X. Guo, Y. Tang, Y. Wang, C. F. Eble, R. B. Finkelman, and P. Li, “Evaluation of carbon forms and elements composition in coal gasification solid residues and their potential utilization from a view of coal geology,” Waste Management, vol. 114, pp. 287–298, 2020, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2020.06.037.
R. Kandiyoti, A. A. Herod, and K. D. Bartle, “Fossil Fuels: Origins and Characterization Methods,” in Solid Fuels and Heavy Hydrocarbon Liquids, Oxford: Elsevier Science Ltd, 2006, ch. CHAPTER 2, pp. 13–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-008044486-4/50002-7.
Longlong. Liu et al., “Catalytic effect of metal chlorides on coal pyrolysis and gasification part Ⅱ. Effects of acid washing on coal characteristics,” Thermochim Acta, vol. 666, no. July 2019, pp. 41–50, 2018, https://doi: 10.1016/j.tca.2018.06.001.
Z. Huang, Y. Tian, Y. Gao, Z. Shao, Y. Zhang, and X. Liu, “Study on the Oxidation Kinetics and Microreactivity of Water-Immersed Coal,” ACS Omega, vol. 5, no. 28, pp. 17287–17303, Jul. 2020, https://doi: 10.1021/acsomega.0c01513.
Y. Xu et al., “Effects of Vitrinite in Low-Rank Coal on the Structure and Combustion Reactivity of Pyrolysis Chars,” ACS Omega, vol. 5, no. 28, pp. 17314–17323, Jul. 2020, https://doi: 10.1021/acsomega.0c01542.
S. Wang, S. Liu, Y. Sun, D. Jiang, and X. Zhang, “Investigation of coal components of Late Permian different ranks bark coal using AFM and Micro-FTIR,” Fuel, vol. 187, pp. 51–57, 2017, https://doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2016.09.049.
H. Xin et al., “Pyrolysis Characteristics of Jet Coal and Oxidation of Residues in Zhundong Coalfield Fires,” ACS Omega, vol. 6, no. 32, pp. 20846–20854, Aug. 2021, https://doi: 10.1021/acsomega.1c02152.
J. Pagacz, B. Naglik, P. Stach, P. Drzewicz, and L. Natkaniec-Nowak, “Maturation process of natural resins recorded in their thermal properties,” J Mater Sci, vol. 55, no. 10, pp. 4504–4523, 2020, https://doi: 10.1007/s10853-019-04302-0.
J. Poulin and K. Helwig, “Class Id resinite from Canada: A new sub-class containing succinic acid,” Org Geochem, vol. 44, pp. 37–44, 2012, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orggeochem.2011.11.012.
H. Song, G. Liu, J. Zhang, and J. Wu, “Pyrolysis characteristics and kinetics of low rank coals by TG-FTIR method,” Fuel Processing Technology, vol. 156, pp. 454–460, 2017, https://doi: 10.1016/j.fuproc.2016.10.008.
Yu. Zhang, Xueqing. Zhang, and Sherong. Hu, “Structural Transformations of Coal at Low Temperature Oxidation via In-situ FTIR,” Combustion Science and Technology, vol. 00, no. 00, pp. 1–18, 2020, https://doi: 10.1080/00102202.2020.1716341.
J. Liu, M. Holuszko, and M. Mastalerz, “Applications of micro-FTIR technique in studying hydrophobicity of coal,” Int J Coal Geol, vol. 178, no. March, pp. 74–83, 2017, https://doi: 10.1016/j.coal.2017.04.015.
M. Mastalerz, J. C. Hower, and Y. Chen, “Microanalysis of barkinite from Chinese coals of high volatile bituminous rank,” Int J Coal Geol, vol. 141–142, pp. 103–108, 2015, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2015.03.004.
H. Lin, S. Tian, A. Jiao, Z. Cao, K. Song, and Y. Zou, “Pore Characteristics and Fractal Dimension Analysis of Tectonic Coal and Primary-Structure Coal: A Case Study of Sanjia Coal Mine in Northern Guizhou,” ACS Omega, Jul. 2022, https://doi: 10.1021/acsomega.2c02222.
D. Wang et al., “Study on pyrolysis behavior of the coal fractions based on macro maceral separation,” Fuel, vol. 305, no. August, p. 121572, 2021, https://doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2021.121572.
Y. Chen, M. Mastalerz, and A. Schimmelmann, “Characterization of chemical functional groups in macerals across different coal ranks via micro-FTIR spectroscopy,” Int J Coal Geol, vol. 104, pp. 22–33, 2012, https://doi: 10.1016/j.coal.2012.09.001.
S. Chakravarty, K. Chakravarty, V. Mishra, S. Chakladar, A. Mohanty, and M. Sharma, “Characterization of Chemical Structure with Relative Density of Three Different Ranks of Coal from India,” Natural Resources Research, vol. 29, no. 5, pp. 3121–3136, 2020, https://doi: 10.1007/s11053-020-09629-z.
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Mehran University Research Journal of Engineering and Technology
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
How to Cite
Most read articles by the same author(s)
- Sikandar Almani, Muhammad Raheel Bawani, Ubedullah Ansari, Masroor Abro, Mashad Hussain, Ali Abbas, Design and fabrication of an indigenous confined bubble column: Investigation of single bubble ascent , Mehran University Research Journal of Engineering and Technology: Vol. 44 No. 2 (2025): April Issue
- Muhammad Raheel Bawani, Waqas Anjum, Sikander Almani, Ali Hassan, Ramez Raja, Noor Muhammad Lashari, Improving the iron grade of indigenous laterite ore through gravity and magnetic separation , Mehran University Research Journal of Engineering and Technology: Vol. 44 No. 3 (2025): July Issue
- Asad Ayub Rajput, Saleem Raza Chalgri, Muhammad Raheel Bawani, Zeshan Sheikh, Rizwan Ullah Faiz, Rashid Ayub Rajput, Synergistic Influence of Inoculum Type and Laterite Powder on Anaerobic Digestion Kinetics of Canola Straw , Mehran University Research Journal of Engineering and Technology: Vol. 45 No. 1 (2026): January Issue
Similar Articles
- Lyu Guanghua, Syed Hadi Hussain Shah, Rizwan Arshad, Ni Jiahua, Machine Learning-Based Optimization of Photovoltaic Panel Cleaning Schedules in Arid Environments: A Case Study of Ryadh, Saudi Arabia , Mehran University Research Journal of Engineering and Technology: Vol. 45 No. 2 (2026): April Issue
- Sadaf Hussain, Amna Sajid, Tanweer Sohail, Muhammad Nauman Aslam, Muhammad Shamrooz Aslam, Green Communication with Object Detection for Energy-Efficient Smart Shopping Carts , Mehran University Research Journal of Engineering and Technology: Vol. 44 No. 4 (2025): October Issue
- Aqsa Mehmood, Ali Tahir, Salman Atif, Ejaz Hussain, Farrukh Baig, Hafiz Syed Hamid Arshad, A Citizen Centered Perspective on Smart Mobility: Identifying Key Factors through the Technology Acceptance Model , Mehran University Research Journal of Engineering and Technology: Vol. 45 No. 3 (2026): July Issue
- Sabahat Hussan , Shan Ul Haq, Muhammad Safi Ullah, Jamal Ahmed Khan, Atif Bilal , Laboratory Study on the Optimization of Asphalt Mixing Protocols , Mehran University Research Journal of Engineering and Technology: Vol. 45 No. 3 (2026): July Issue
- Shan Ul Haq, Sabahat Hussan, Muhmmad Qasim Ch, Subhan Hameed, Muhammad Huzaifa, Performance and Economic Evaluation of RAP-Incorporated Asphalt Mixes for Local Road , Mehran University Research Journal of Engineering and Technology: Vol. 45 No. 3 (2026): July Issue
- Abid Ali, Audil Rashid, Shahid Mahmood, Tariq Mahmood, Aniqa Batool, Munnaza Khalid, Ismat karim, Muhammad Shafiq, Engineering Assessment of Antibiotic Transport, Retention, and Exposure Pathways in Wastewater impacted Rural Soil–Water Systems of Punjab, Pakistan , Mehran University Research Journal of Engineering and Technology: Vol. 45 No. 2 (2026): April Issue
- Ashar Ahmed, Mario Muñoz-Organero, Bushra Aijaz, Exploring commuter stress dynamics through machine learning and double optimization , Mehran University Research Journal of Engineering and Technology: Vol. 44 No. 2 (2025): April Issue
- Muhammad Yousaf Raza Taseer, Ahmad Razin Zainal Abidin , Shafiq Ishak , Predicting the compressive strength of limestone calcined clay cement (LC3) mortars with POFA via maturity method , Mehran University Research Journal of Engineering and Technology: Vol. 44 No. 3 (2025): July Issue
You may also start an advanced similarity search for this article.