MUET logo

High Strength Ambient Cured Red Mud Geopolymer using Automotive GlassWaste and GGBFS: Mechanical and Microstructure Properties

Authors

  • Joonaith Chundan Veedu

    Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia
    Author

  • Nur Hafizah A. Khalid

    Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia
    Author

  • Nor Hasanah Abdul Shukor Lim

    Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia
    Author

  • Shafiq Ishak

    Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia
    Author

  • Adrina Rosseira A. Talip

    Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia
    Author

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.22581/0135

Keywords:

Red mud , Automotive glass waste powder, Ground granulated blast furnace slag, Geopolymer concrete, Ambient curing

Abstract

The Bayer process for refining bauxite ore produces a highly alkaline by-product called red mud (RM). The typical disposal of this product on open land creates a high impact on the environment. To mitigate these ecological issues, utilizing RM in geopolymer concrete (GPC) offers a sustainable solution. This study aims to enhance the mechanical properties of RM-based GPC cured under ambient conditions to produce higher-grade concrete. Red mud was collected from the eastern region of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, and microstructural investigations were conducted to characterize the binder components. Although RM contains silica and alumina, the quantities are insufficient to produce high-strength concrete. Therefore, the geopolymerization process was enhanced by incorporating alumina, silica, and calcium-rich materials such as ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) and silica-rich automotive glass waste powder (AGWP). A series of tests aimed at optimizing the molarity (M) of sodium hydroxide (SH) solution, the sodium silicate (SS) to SH ratio, the fluid-to-binder (F/B) ratio, and the binder proportions were also conducted. Experimental results indicate that under ambient temperature (27 - 31 ̊C), the F/B ratio of 0.5, M=10, and SS/SH = 2.5 with binder proportions of RM: AGWP: GGBFS = 50:10:40 produces a remarkable compressive strength of 64 MPa at 28 days of the curing period. Microstructural observations revealed denser gel formation and reduced porosity in ternary blends. The results demonstrate a viable pathway to high-strength, ambient-cured RM geopolymers.

Downloads

References

[1] R. M. Andrew, “Global CO2 emissions from cement production,” Earth System Science Data, vol. 10, pp. 195–217, Jan. 2018. doi: 10.5194/essd10-195-2018.

[2] K. H. Yang, J. K. Song, and K. I. Song, “Assessment of CO2 reduction of alkali-activated concrete,” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 39, pp. 265–272, Aug. 2012. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.08.001.

[3] J. Davidovits, Geopolymer Chemistry and Applications. Saint-Quentin: Institut Géopolymère, 5th ed., 2020.

[4] International Aluminium Institute, “Alumina production statistics.” [Online]. Available: https://international-aluminium.org/statistics/ alumina-production/. [Accessed: Dec. 2024].

[5] S. Vigneshwaran, M. Uthayakumar, and V. Arumugaprabu, “Potential use of industrial waste red mud in developing hybrid composites: A waste management approach,” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 276, p. 124278, Sept. 2020. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124278.

[6] T.-a. Zhang, Y. Wang, G. Lu, Y. Liu, W. Zhang, and Q. Zhao, “Comprehensive utilization of red mud: current research status and a possible way forward for non-hazardous treatment,” in TMS Annual Meeting & Exhibition, pp. 135–141, Springer, 2018.

[7] J. Liu, J.-H. Doh, D. E. Ong, H. L. Dinh, Z. Podolsky, and G. Zi, “Investigation on red mud and fly ash-based geopolymer: Quantification of reactive aluminosilicate and derivation of effective si/al molar ratio,” Journal of Building Engineering, vol. 71, p. 106559, 2023.

[8] M. Statkauskas, D. Vaičiukyniene˙, A. Grinys, and D. Bajare, “Effect of sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide ratios on compressive strength of ceramic brick and metakaolin waste-based geopolymer binder,” Materials, vol. 18, no. 21, p. 4947, 2025.

[9] M. Verma and N. Dev, “Effect of liquid to binder ratio and curing temperature on the engineering properties of geopolymer concrete,” Silicon, vol. 14, pp. 1743–1757, Feb. 2021. doi: 10.1007/s12633-2021-00985-w.

[10] E. Yusslee and S. Beskhyroun, “The effect of water-to-binder ratio (W/B) on pore structure of one-part alkali activated mortar,” Heliyon, vol. 9, p. e12983, Jan. 2023. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e12983.

[11] J. L. Provis, “Alkali-activated materials,” Cement and Concrete Research, vol. 114, pp. 40–48, Mar. 2017. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2017.02.009.

[12] S. Chen, A. G. Razaqpur, and T. Wang, “Effects of red mud mineralogical composition versus calcination on its pozzolanicity,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 404, p. 133238, Sept. 2023. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.133238.

[13] J. Davidovits, “Geopolymers and geopolymeric materials,” Journal of Thermal Analysis, vol. 35, pp. 429–441, Mar. 1989. doi: 10.1007/bf01904446.

[14] P. Duxson, J. L. Provis, G. C. Lukey, and J. S. Van Deventer, “The role of inorganic polymer technology in the development of ‘green concrete’,” cement and concrete research, vol. 37, no. 12, pp. 1590–1597, 2007.

[15] C. Shi, A. F. Jiménez, and A. Palomo, “New cements for the 21st century,” Cement and Concrete Research, vol. 41, pp. 750–763, May 2011. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2011.03.016.

[16] Z. Zhang, H. Zhu, C. Zhou, and H. Wang, “Geopolymer from kaolin in china: An overview,” Applied Clay Science, vol. 119, pp. 31–41, 2016.

[17] C. Panagiotopoulou, S. Tsivilis, and G. Kakali, “Application of the taguchi approach for the composition optimization of alkali activated fly ash binders,” Construction and building materials, vol. 91, pp. 17–22, 2015.

[18] H. Xu and J. S. J. V. Deventer, “Ab initio calculations on alumino-silicate framework rings,” Computers & Chemistry, vol. 24, pp. 391–404, May 2000. doi: 10.1016/s0097-8485(99)00080-7.

[19] S. Ahmari, L. Zhang, and J. Zhang, “Effects of activator type/concentration and curing temperature on alkali-activated binder based on copper mine tailings,” Journal of Materials Science, vol. 47, no. 16, pp. 5933–5945, 2012.

[20] K. Vijay, R. K. Rathinam, and B. G. Vishnuram, “Effect of curing on strength of geopolymer concrete,” International Journal of Physical Sciences, vol. 5, pp. 1419–1423, Sept. 2010.

[21] K. Vijai, R. Kumutha, and B. Vishnuram, “Effect of types of curing on strength of geopolymer concrete,” International Journal of the Physical Sciences, vol. 5, no. 9, pp. 1419–1423, 2010.

[22] M. Saravanan, C. Aravindhan, and S. Ramakrishnan, “Experimental investigation of geopolymer concrete,” in AIP conference proceedings, vol. 2385, p. 100004, AIP Publishing LLC, 2022.

[23] M. A. Khairul, J. Zanganeh, and B. Moghtaderi, “Composition and utilisation of Bayer red mud,” Resources, Conservation and Recycling, vol. 141, pp. 483–498, Nov. 2018. doi: 10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.11.006.

[24] A. S. Verma, N. M. Suri, and S. Kant, “Applications of bauxite residue: A mini-review,” Waste Management & Research, vol. 35, no. 10, pp. 999– 1012, 2017.

[25] E. Atan, M. Sutcu, and A. S. Cam, “Combined effects of bayer process bauxite waste (red mud) and agricultural waste on technological properties of fired clay bricks,” Journal of Building Engineering, vol. 43, p. 103194, 2021.

[26] S. Wang, H. Jin, Y. Deng, and Y. Xiao, “Comprehensive utilization status of red mud in china: A critical review,” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 289, p. 125136, 2021.

[27] S. Singh, M. U. Aswath, and R. Ranganath, “Effect of mechanical activation of red mud on the strength of geopolymer binder,” Construction and building materials, vol. 177, pp. 91–101, 2018.

[28] N. Ye, J. Yang, S. Liang, Y. Hu, J. Hu, B. Xiao, and Q. Huang, “Synthesis and strength optimization of one-part geopolymer based on red mud,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 111, pp. 317–325, 2016.

[29] Y. M. Amran, R. Alyousef, H. Alabduljabbar, and M. El-Zeadani, “Clean production and properties of geopolymer concrete; a review,” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 251, p. 119679, 2020.

[30] M. E. S. I. Saraya, “Physico-chemical properties of blended cements,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 72, pp. 104–112, Sept. 2014. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.08.071.

[31] A. Islam, U. J. Alengaram, M. Z. Jumaat, I. I. Bashar, and S. A. Kabir, “Engineering properties and carbon footprint of ground granulated blast-furnace slag-palm oil fuel ash-based structural geopolymer concrete,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 101, pp. 503–521, 2015.

[32] A. Siddika, A. Hajimohammadi, M. A. A. Mamun, R. Alyousef, and W. Ferdous, “Waste glass in cement and geopolymer concretes: A review on durability and challenges,” Polymers, vol. 13, no. 13, p. 2071, 2021.

[33] Saint-Gobain Sekurit. [Online]. Available: https:// www.saint-gobain-sekurit.com/. [Accessed: Dec. 2024].

[34] Autoglass Plus. [Online]. Available: https://www. autoglass-plus.com/. [Accessed: Dec. 2024].

[35] M. Flood, L. Fennessy, S. Lockrey, A. Avendano, J. Glover, E. Kandare, and T. Bhat, “Glass fines: A review of cleaning and up-cycling possibilities,” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 267, p. 121875, 2020.

[36] World Bank, “What a waste: Trends in solid waste management.” [Online]. Available: https: //datatopics.worldbank.org/what-a-waste/. [Accessed: Dec. 2024].

[37] S. M. Hama, A. S. Mahmoud, and M. M. Yassen, “Flexural behavior of reinforced concrete beam incorporating waste glass powder,” in Structures, vol. 20, pp. 510–518, Elsevier, 2019.

[38] Recovery Worldwide, “Glass recycling market trends.” [Online]. Available: https://www. recovery-worldwide.com/. [Accessed: Dec. 2024].

[39] A. Adesina and S. Das, “Influence of glass powder on durability,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 242, p. 118199, Feb. 2020. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.118199.

[40] A. Jamshidi, K. Kurumisawa, T. Nawa, and T. Igarashi, “Performance of pavements incorporating waste glass: The current state of the art,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 64, pp. 211–236, 2016.

[41] M. Vafaei and A. Allahverdi, “Durability of geopolymer mortar with waste glass,” Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, vol. 29, p. 04017196, July 2017. doi: 10.1061/(asce)mt.1943-5533.0002053.

[42] N. M. Akhras, “Performance of glass concrete under freeze-thaw cycling,” The Open Construction and Building Technology Journal, vol. 6, pp. 392– 397, 2012.

[43] K. Rashid, R. Hameed, H. A. Ahmad, A. Razzaq, M. Ahmad, and A. Mahmood, “Analytical framework for value added utilization of glass waste in concrete: Mechanical and environmental performance,” Waste Management, vol. 79, pp. 312–323, 2018.

[44] Y. Zhang, R. Xiao, X. Jiang, W. Li, X. Zhu, and B. Huang, “Effect of particle size and curing temperature on mechanical and microstructural properties of waste glass-slag-based and waste glass-fly ash-based geopolymers,” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 273, p. 122970, 2020.

[45] A. B. Pascual, T. M. Tognonvi, and A. Tagnit-Hamou, “Optimization study of waste glass powder-based alkali activated materials incorporating metakaolin: Activation and curing conditions,” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 308, p. 127435, 2021.

Published

2026-10-01

Issue

Vol. 45 No. 4 (2026): October Issue

Section

Articles

License

Copyright (c) 2026 Mehran University Research Journal of Engineering and Technology

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

How to Cite

High Strength Ambient Cured Red Mud Geopolymer using Automotive GlassWaste and GGBFS: Mechanical and Microstructure Properties. (2026). Mehran University Research Journal of Engineering and Technology, 45(4), 01-11. https://doi.org/10.22581/0135

Similar Articles

11-20 of 39

You may also start an advanced similarity search for this article.